The Dawn of Ancient Pharmacology
Long before modern laboratories synthesized pharmaceuticals, early humans and ancient civilizations possessed a sophisticated, empirical knowledge of the natural world, particularly the psychoactive and medicinal properties of plants. This vast, inherited wisdom laid the foundation for the first pharmacopeias. Archaeological discoveries and ancient texts provide a window into these practices.
Evidence from as far back as 60,000 BCE, found in a Neanderthal burial site in Iraq, points to the use of plants like yarrow and chamomile, suggesting a prehistoric understanding of herbal medicine. Later, written records emerged, formalizing this knowledge. A Sumerian clay tablet from around 2400 BCE contains one of the oldest known medical texts, listing over 250 plants, including poppy and mandrake, used in remedies. In Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus from 1550 BCE documents hundreds of plant-based drugs, showcasing a developed system of herbal healing.
Opium: The Joy Plant
Among the most historically significant and widely used ancient drugs was opium, derived from the poppy plant (Papaver somniferum). The Sumerians referred to it as "hul gil," or "the joy plant," signaling their early awareness of its euphoric effects.
- Medicinal Uses: Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans all relied on opium as a potent pain reliever, sedative, and treatment for ailments like diarrhea and coughs. Galen, a Roman physician, popularized its use for treating a range of illnesses.
- Recreational and Ritual Use: Though medicinal, opium was also consumed recreationally. Greek and Roman sources describe its effects, and figures like the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius were noted users for both pain relief and mood. The Greeks associated the poppy with gods like Hypnos (sleep) and Thanatos (death), decorating temples and statues with its imagery.
- Cultivation and Trade: Cultivation and trade spread from the Near East along ancient routes, reaching Europe and China. In Crete, a Minoan shrine dating to 1300 BCE suggests the poppy was central to fertility and health rituals.
Cannabis: From Fiber to Ecstasy
Cannabis is another ancient substance with a multifaceted history, used for everything from practical materials to spiritual experiences.
- Early Use: Chinese texts from as early as 2737 BCE record its use for medicinal purposes, including rheumatism, gout, and malaria. In Central Asia, the nomadic Scythians inhaled cannabis smoke during burial rituals, a practice recorded by the Greek historian Herodotus.
- Versatile Applications: For many ancient cultures, cannabis was a valuable crop for its strong fibers, used to make rope, textiles, and paper. The dual use for fiber and its psychoactive properties highlights how ancient societies viewed the plant differently than modern ones.
Alcohol: A Social and Sacred Libation
Alcohol, in the form of fermented beverages like beer and wine, is perhaps the most universally and consistently used ancient drug.
- Prehistoric Production: Archaeological finds in China indicate that fermented beverages from rice, honey, and fruit were made as early as 7000 BCE. Early pottery from the Andes shows it was used for making chicha from corn.
- Cultural Significance: From the Sumerians honoring the goddess of beer, Ninkasi, to the Greeks and Romans celebrating wine with Dionysian and Bacchanalian festivals, alcohol was deeply woven into social, religious, and political life. It was used for communal bonding, rituals, and sometimes, intoxication.
Psychedelics and Hallucinogens
Many ancient cultures intentionally consumed psychoactive substances to induce altered states of consciousness for spiritual, divinatory, or healing purposes.
- Psilocybin Mushrooms: Murals in the Saharan desert, dating back as far as 9000-7000 BCE, depict mushroom use. In Mesoamerica, ancient societies like the Maya and Aztec used psilocybin mushrooms, which they called teonanacatl ("flesh of the gods"), in religious ceremonies and coronations.
- Peyote: The peyote cactus, containing the hallucinogenic alkaloid mescaline, has been used by indigenous cultures in Mesoamerica and the Rio Grande for over 5000 years for ritual and therapeutic purposes.
- Other Plants: Indigenous cultures in the Americas used plants like coca leaf for stimulation and endurance. Other psychoactive plants, including harmal, blue lotus, and various fungi, were also used by different ancient societies to induce altered states.
Comparison of Key Ancient Drugs and Their Uses
| Substance | Origin (Approx.) | Primary Use(s) | Key Civilizations | Key Effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Opium | Mesopotamia (~3400 BCE) | Pain relief, sedation, ritual, recreational use | Sumerians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans | Analgesia, euphoria, sleep induction |
| Cannabis | China (~2700 BCE) | Medicine, ritual, fiber production | Chinese, Scythians, Greeks, Romans | Pain relief, stress relief, psychoactive effects |
| Alcohol (Beer/Wine) | China (~7000 BCE) | Ritual, social, medicinal | Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Incas | Intoxication, social bonding, spiritual connection |
| Psilocybin | Saharan desert (~9000 BCE) | Religious rituals, divination | Mesoamerican cultures, early Africans | Hallucinations, altered states of consciousness |
| Peyote | Mesoamerica (~5000 years ago) | Spiritual ceremonies, healing rituals | Aztecs, Huichol, Native Americans | Visions, altered perception, therapeutic use |
Ancient Practices vs. Modern Understanding
The context surrounding ancient drug use was fundamentally different from the issues facing modern society. For the most part, ancient cultures did not have a concept of "drug addiction" as a social problem, even with highly addictive substances like opium. Substances were often integrated into a specific cultural context—medicinal, spiritual, or utilitarian. Dosage and safety were based on centuries of practical, empirical knowledge, though miscalculation could be lethal. The isolation of specific active compounds, a key step toward modern pharmacology, only began in the 19th century.
Other Notable Ancient Medicines and Plants
- Willow Bark: Hippocrates, the "father of Western medicine," described how willow bark could be used for fevers and pain, which we now know is due to the presence of salicin, a compound later used to create aspirin.
- Blue Lotus: A favorite among ancient Egyptians, this flower was brewed into tea or alcohol to induce mild euphoria and relaxation.
- Mandrake and Henbane: These plants contain powerful alkaloids and were used as narcotics by ancient Sumerians, Greeks, and Romans. The Roman physician Dioscorides noted their potency.
- Honey: Used widely by ancient Egyptians and others as a natural antibiotic for wounds and a base for other remedies.
- Coca Leaf: Chewed or brewed by ancient Andean cultures for its stimulating effects, providing energy and endurance.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Natural Medicines
The exploration of what drugs did ancient people do reveals a profound and enduring relationship between humans and psychoactive substances. From the earliest herbalists to the great medical texts of antiquity, natural materials were essential tools for healing, ritual, and daily life. While scientific understanding has progressed significantly, the legacy of ancient pharmacology persists. Many modern drugs are derived from ancient plant-based remedies, demonstrating that the trial-and-error wisdom of our ancestors laid the groundwork for contemporary medicine and continues to inform our understanding of natural healing today.
