The quest to identify the oldest drug known to mankind takes us back to the dawn of civilization and beyond, into our prehistoric past. The line between food, medicine, and intoxicant was often blurry for ancient peoples. While many substances were used for their psychoactive or medicinal properties, two primary contenders emerge with the most compelling evidence: alcohol and opium.
The Dawn of Fermentation: Alcohol
The ability of our primate ancestors to metabolize alcohol from fermenting fruit likely predates humanity itself [1.3.6]. However, the intentional production of alcoholic beverages marks a significant step in human history. The oldest verifiable evidence of brewing comes from Raqefet Cave, a prehistoric burial site near modern-day Haifa, Israel. Researchers discovered residue of a 13,000-year-old wheat-and-barley-based beer, likely used for ritual feasts honoring the dead [1.3.1, 1.3.3].
Later, in the Neolithic village of Jiahu in China, pottery jars from around 7000 BCE revealed traces of a mixed fermented beverage made from rice, honey, grapes, and hawthorn berries [1.3.2, 1.3.7]. In Mesopotamia, beer was a daily staple by 3400 BCE, and the Sumerians even worshipped a goddess of brewing, Ninkasi [1.3.4]. These findings show that alcohol was one of the first psychoactive substances to be systematically produced by humans, serving social, religious, and medicinal roles [1.3.3, 1.3.6].
The 'Joy Plant': Opium
While alcohol's origins may lie in accidental fermentation, the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) is arguably the first plant cultivated specifically for its medicinal and narcotic properties [1.4.6]. The earliest reference to opium poppy cultivation dates to 3400 BCE in Mesopotamia, where the Sumerians reputedly called it Hul Gil, the "joy plant" [1.4.1, 1.4.3]. However, some recent scholarship questions the certainty of the "joy plant" translation and suggests opium's domestication actually occurred in Europe during the Neolithic period, spreading from there [1.6.1, 1.6.2].
Regardless of its exact origin, evidence for opium use is widespread in the ancient world. Archaeologists found evidence of opium poppy use in Europe dating to 5700 BCE [1.2.2]. By the Late Bronze Age, the Egyptians were cultivating vast fields of poppies in Thebes and used the substance during surgeries and to quiet crying children [1.2.1, 1.2.7]. The famous Ebers Papyrus, one of the oldest medical documents from around 1500 BCE, describes remedies using opium poppy grains [1.2.7]. Later, the Greeks and Romans, including the physician Hippocrates, documented opium's powerful use as a painkiller and sedative [1.2.1, 1.4.7]. This long history establishes opium as one of the world's most important and earliest medicines.
Other Ancient Psychoactive Substances
Beyond alcohol and opium, our ancestors experimented with a wide array of psychoactive plants for ritualistic and healing purposes.
- Psychedelic Mushrooms: Rock art from Tassili, Algeria, dating back 7,000 to 9,000 years, appears to depict the use of psilocybin mushrooms [1.5.5]. In Mesoamerica, so-called "mushroom stones" from ritual contexts date back as far as 3000 BCE [1.5.1].
- Cannabis: Cannabis seeds have been found in archaeological sites in Asia from as early as 8100 BCE [1.2.2]. The first written record of its medicinal use is attributed to a Chinese medical text from 2737 BCE, which describes using cannabis-based tea for conditions like gout and malaria [1.2.4].
- Peyote and San Pedro Cactus: The use of mescaline-containing cacti is ancient in the Americas. Peyote buttons found in a Texas cave have been dated to around 4000 BCE [1.2.2]. Meanwhile, the earliest evidence for the use of the San Pedro cactus comes from a cave in Peru, with findings dating back to between 8600 and 5600 BCE [1.5.4].
- Willow Bark and Other Herbs: Even Neanderthals may have practiced a form of medicine. At the Shanidar Cave site in Iraq, a 60,000-year-old Neanderthal burial was found with pollen from several plants known for their medicinal properties, including yarrow and hollyhock [1.7.1, 1.7.3]. Although this interpretation is debated, it points to a deep history of recognizing the properties of plants [1.7.2]. Later, ancient Egyptians used willow tree extracts (a source of salicin, the precursor to aspirin) to reduce pain and inflammation [1.8.1].
Comparison of Ancient Drugs
| Drug/Substance | Earliest Evidence of Use | Primary Use (Medicinal/Ritual) | Key Ancient Cultures |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alcohol | ~13,000 BCE (brewing) [1.3.3] | Ritual, Social, Medicinal [1.3.3] | Natufian, Neolithic Chinese, Sumerian, Egyptian [1.3.1, 1.3.6, 1.3.7] |
| Opium Poppy | ~5700 BCE (use) [1.2.2] | Medicinal, Narcotic, Ritual [1.2.1, 1.4.7] | Neolithic Europeans, Sumerian, Egyptian, Greek [1.2.2, 1.4.1] |
| Cannabis | ~8100 BCE (seeds found) [1.2.2] | Medicinal, Ritual [1.2.4] | Ancient Chinese, Scythians [1.2.2, 1.2.4] |
| Psychedelics | ~7000-5000 BCE (rock art) [1.5.5] | Ritual, Shamanic [1.5.1, 1.5.4] | Prehistoric Algerians, Mesoamerican cultures [1.5.1, 1.5.5] |
Conclusion: A Difficult Verdict
So, what is the oldest drug known to mankind? The answer depends on the definition. If a 'drug' is any substance intentionally produced for its psychoactive effects, alcohol appears to be the oldest, with evidence of brewing dating back 13,000 years [1.3.1, 1.3.3]. However, if the definition is narrowed to a substance cultivated specifically for its powerful medicinal and narcotic properties, then the opium poppy has a strong claim, with a history of use and cultivation stretching back more than 7,000 years [1.2.2, 1.4.2]. The long history of humanity's use of these substances highlights a continuous and evolving relationship with the natural world, forming the very foundation of modern pharmacology.
Authoritative Link: Opium Throughout History - PBS Frontline [1.4.3]
